{"ok":true,"entry":{"slug":"epa","kind":"supplement","name":"EPA","aliases":["eicosapentaenoic acid"],"brands_sg":["California Gold Nutrition","NOW Foods","Sports Research","Nordic Naturals","Life Extension"],"class":"omega-3 fatty acid","tags":["heart","general"],"use_for":"triglyceride levels · heart-event trials are mixed","use_after":"no timing rule in the sheet","use_duration":"trials ran 12–88 months","take_with":"no food rule given · side effects are mild, mostly gut","pros":["86 trials: triglycerides down about 15%","AHA: ~1 g/day EPA+DHA for existing coronary disease","no UL set; EFSA and FDA hold ≤5 g/day as safe"],"cons":["no intake target for EPA — only ALA has one","4 g/day raised atrial fibrillation risk in 2 trials","mild gut effects: reflux, nausea, fishy aftertaste"],"dose_note":"FDA specifies that supplement labels should not recommend more than 2 g a day of EPA plus DHA; the AHA cites about 1 g/day EPA plus DHA for people with existing coronary heart disease, and 4 g/day prescription omega-3s for high triglycerides","dosage":{"ul":null,"unit":"g","fda_dv":null,"rda_ai":"none for EPA · ALA AI 1.6 g men / 1.1 g women (19+)","ul_status":"none_established","population":"general adult","hsa_max_daily":null},"ul_status":"none_established","sg_class":null,"cautions":["warfarin or antiplatelet drugs — INR can rise; ask your doctor first","existing CVD or high CVD risk — 4 g/day raised atrial fibrillation in two trials","900 mg/day EPA plus 600 mg/day DHA or more for weeks may reduce immune function"],"clashes":[{"src":["ods_epa_interactions"],"note":"may prolong clotting time and raise INR; most research at 3–6 g/day fish oil shows no significant change","with":"warfarin"},{"src":["ods_epa_interactions"],"note":"fish oil has antiplatelet effects at high doses, reported as less potent than aspirin","with":"antiplatelet drugs"}],"sources":[{"id":"ods_epa_intro","url":"https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Omega3FattyAcids-HealthProfessional/","label":"NIH ODS — Omega-3 Fatty Acids (Health Professional), sheet dated “Updated: August 22, 2025”; read from a cached full-text copy on disk — Introduction","quote":"the majority of scientific research focuses on three: alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) … EPA and DHA are considered long-chain (LC) omega-3s","accessed":"2026-08-27"},{"id":"ods_epa_intake","url":"https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Omega3FattyAcids-HealthProfessional/","label":"NIH ODS — Omega-3 Fatty Acids (Health Professional), sheet dated “Updated: August 22, 2025”; read from a cached full-text copy on disk — Recommended Intakes (Table 1 AIs for ALA)","quote":"For age 1 and older, the AIs apply only to ALA because ALA is the only omega-3 that is essential. The IOM did not establish specific intake recommendations for EPA, DHA, or other LC omega-3s","accessed":"2026-08-27"},{"id":"ods_epa_dv","url":"https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Omega3FattyAcids-HealthProfessional/","label":"NIH ODS — Omega-3 Fatty Acids (Health Professional), sheet dated “Updated: August 22, 2025”; read from a cached full-text copy on disk — Sources of Omega-3s: Food (Daily Value note under Table 2)","quote":"The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has established a Daily Value (DV) of 65 g for total fat but not for omega-3s","accessed":"2026-08-27"},{"id":"ods_epa_cochrane","url":"https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Omega3FattyAcids-HealthProfessional/","label":"NIH ODS — Omega-3 Fatty Acids (Health Professional), sheet dated “Updated: August 22, 2025”; read from a cached full-text copy on disk — Omega-3s and Health: Cardiovascular disease (2020 Cochrane Review)","quote":"0.5 g/day to more than 5 g/day LC omega-3s for 12 to 88 months in a total of 162,796 participants reduced serum triglyceride levels by about 15% … did not affect all-cause mortality, cardiovascular events, stroke, or arrhythmia","accessed":"2026-08-27"},{"id":"ods_epa_aha","url":"https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Omega3FattyAcids-HealthProfessional/","label":"NIH ODS — Omega-3 Fatty Acids (Health Professional), sheet dated “Updated: August 22, 2025”; read from a cached full-text copy on disk — Omega-3s and Health: Recommendations from the American Heart Association","quote":"For people with existing coronary heart disease … the AHA recommends approximately 1 g/day EPA plus DHA, preferably from oily fish … does not recommend omega-3 supplements for people who do not have a high CVD risk","accessed":"2026-08-27"},{"id":"ods_epa_fda2g","url":"https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Omega3FattyAcids-HealthProfessional/","label":"NIH ODS — Omega-3 Fatty Acids (Health Professional), sheet dated “Updated: August 22, 2025”; read from a cached full-text copy on disk — Omega-3s and Health: Cardiovascular disease (FDA qualified health claim)","quote":"FDA also specifies that the labels of dietary supplements should not recommend a daily intake of EPA and DHA higher than 2 g","accessed":"2026-08-27"},{"id":"ods_epa_safety","url":"https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Omega3FattyAcids-HealthProfessional/","label":"NIH ODS — Omega-3 Fatty Acids (Health Professional), sheet dated “Updated: August 22, 2025”; read from a cached full-text copy on disk — Health Risks from Excessive Omega-3s (no UL; immune function)","quote":"The IOM did not establish a UL for any omega-3s, although it noted that high doses of DHA and/or EPA (900 mg/day of EPA plus 600 mg/day DHA or more for several weeks) might reduce immune function","accessed":"2026-08-27"},{"id":"ods_epa_efsa_fda5g","url":"https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Omega3FattyAcids-HealthProfessional/","label":"NIH ODS — Omega-3 Fatty Acids (Health Professional), sheet dated “Updated: August 22, 2025”; read from a cached full-text copy on disk — Health Risks from Excessive Omega-3s (EFSA and FDA safety opinions)","quote":"long-term consumption of EPA and DHA supplements at combined doses of up to about 5 g/day appears to be safe … FDA has concluded that dietary supplements providing no more than 5 g/day EPA and DHA are safe","accessed":"2026-08-27"},{"id":"ods_epa_af","url":"https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Omega3FattyAcids-HealthProfessional/","label":"NIH ODS — Omega-3 Fatty Acids (Health Professional), sheet dated “Updated: August 22, 2025”; read from a cached full-text copy on disk — Health Risks from Excessive Omega-3s (atrial fibrillation)","quote":"Two large clinical trials … found that taking 4 g/day of omega-3 supplements for several years slightly increased the risk of atrial fibrillation in people with CVD or at high risk of CVD","accessed":"2026-08-27"},{"id":"ods_epa_sideeffects","url":"https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Omega3FattyAcids-HealthProfessional/","label":"NIH ODS — Omega-3 Fatty Acids (Health Professional), sheet dated “Updated: August 22, 2025”; read from a cached full-text copy on disk — Health Risks from Excessive Omega-3s (side effects)","quote":"Commonly reported side effects of omega-3 supplements are usually mild. These include unpleasant taste, bad breath, heartburn, nausea, gastrointestinal discomfort, diarrhea, headache, and odoriferous sweat","accessed":"2026-08-27"},{"id":"ods_epa_interactions","url":"https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Omega3FattyAcids-HealthProfessional/","label":"NIH ODS — Omega-3 Fatty Acids (Health Professional), sheet dated “Updated: August 22, 2025”; read from a cached full-text copy on disk — Interactions with Medications (anticoagulant and antiplatelet drugs)","quote":"Fish oil might prolong clotting times, as indicated by an elevated international normalized ratio (INR), when it is taken with warfarin … most research indicates that doses of 3–6 g/day fish oil do not significantly affect the anticoagulant status","accessed":"2026-08-27"},{"id":"hsa_hs_guidelines","url":"https://file.go.gov.sg/hsa-hs-guidelines.pdf","label":"HSA Singapore — Health Supplements Guidelines GL-CHPB-3-001 Rev. No. 020 (January 2026), clause 4.8 (Tables 4–5 list vitamins and minerals only; no EPA or fish-oil row)","quote":"HS for use by the general adult population should not contain vitamins and minerals exceeding the stipulated limits stated in Tables 4 and 5","accessed":"2026-08-27"},{"id":"hsa_prohibited_2025","url":"https://file.go.gov.sg/hsa-chp-prohibited-restricted-ing-guidelines.pdf","label":"HSA Singapore — Guidelines on Prohibited and Restricted Ingredients in HS and TM, GL-CHPB-1-012 Rev. 001 (October 2025), clause 1.3; Annexes A and B checked","quote":"highlight the substances of concern when used in HS and TM and is not meant to be an exhaustive list [EPA, omega-3 and fish oil are not listed in Annex A or B]","accessed":"2026-08-27"},{"id":"iherb_sg","url":"https://sg.iherb.com/c/epa","label":"iHerb Singapore — sg.iherb.com/c/epa, which serves the “Fish Oil & Omega-3 Supplements | EPA & DHA” category, default order, 1,064 results","quote":"California Gold Nutrition, Omega-3 Premium Fish Oil … NOW Foods, Omega-3 Fish Oil … Sports Research, Alaskan Omega-3 Fish Oil … Nordic Naturals, Ultimate Omega® … Life Extension, Super Omega-3","accessed":"2026-08-27"}],"brand_certs":[{"brand":"Sports Research","example":null,"programme":"NSF Certified for Sport","matching_products":0,"brand_total_certified":2},{"brand":"Nordic Naturals","example":null,"programme":"NSF Certified for Sport","matching_products":0,"brand_total_certified":9}],"updated_at":"2026-08-30T17:59:38.376296+08:00"},"disclaimer":"kozen-x is not a medical device and does not give medical advice. it lists what published sources have written down. absence of a record is not the same as safe."}